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# Learn More

In this last introductory section we give some pointers to the major scientific libraries
and suggestions for further reading.


## NumPy

Fundamental matrix and array processing capabilities are provided by the
excellent [NumPy](http://www.numpy.org/) library.

For example, let\'s build some arrays

```{code-cell} ipython3
import numpy as np                     # Load the library

a = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, 100)    # Create even grid from -π to π
b = np.cos(a)                          # Apply cosine to each element of a
c = np.sin(a)                          # Apply sin to each element of a
```

Now let\'s take the inner product

```{code-cell} ipython3
b @ c
```

The number you see here might vary slightly due to floating point arithmetic
but it\'s essentially zero.

As with other standard NumPy operations, this inner product calls into highly
optimized machine code.

It is as efficient as carefully hand-coded FORTRAN or C.




## SciPy

The [SciPy](http://www.scipy.org) library is built on top of NumPy and
provides additional functionality.

(tuple_unpacking_example)=
For example, let\'s calculate $\int_{-2}^2 \phi(z) dz$ where $\phi$ is
the standard normal density.

```{code-cell} ipython3
from scipy.stats import norm
from scipy.integrate import quad

ϕ = norm()
value, error = quad(ϕ.pdf, -2, 2)  # Integrate using Gaussian quadrature
value
```

SciPy includes many of the standard routines used in

-   [linear algebra](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/linalg.html)
-   [integration](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/integrate.html)
-   [interpolation](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/interpolate.html)
-   [optimization](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/optimize.html)
-   [distributions and random number generation](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/stats.html)
-   [signal processing](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/signal.html)

See them all [here](http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/index.html).

## Graphics

The most popular and comprehensive Python library for creating figures
and graphs is [Matplotlib](http://matplotlib.org/), with functionality
including

-   plots, histograms, contour images, 3D graphs, bar charts etc.
-   output in many formats (PDF, PNG, EPS, etc.)
-   LaTeX integration

Example 2D plot with embedded LaTeX annotations

```{figure} /_static/lecture_specific/about_py/qs.png
:scale: 55%
:alt: Image three histograms demonstrating different distributions
 Histogram plot
```

Example contour plot

```{figure} /_static/lecture_specific/about_py/bn_density1.png
:scale: 55%
:alt: Image of a contour plot indicating 3 dimensions of data
 Contour plot
```

Example 3D plot

```{figure} /_static/lecture_specific/about_py/career_vf.png
:scale: 80%
:alt: Image of a 3D plot with a surface
 3D plot
```

More examples can be found in the [Matplotlib thumbnail
gallery](http://matplotlib.org/gallery.html).

Other graphics libraries include

-   [Plotly](https://plot.ly/python/)
-   [Bokeh](http://bokeh.pydata.org/en/latest/)

## Symbolic Algebra

It\'s useful to be able to manipulate symbolic expressions, as in
Mathematica or Maple.

The [SymPy](http://www.sympy.org/) library provides this functionality
from within the Python shell.

```{code-cell} ipython3
from sympy import Symbol

x, y = Symbol('x'), Symbol('y')  # Treat 'x' and 'y' as algebraic symbols
x + x + x + y
```

We can manipulate expressions

```{code-cell} ipython3
expression = (x + y)**2
expression.expand()
```

solve polynomials

```{code-cell} ipython3
from sympy import solve

solve(x**2 + x + 2)
```

and calculate limits, derivatives and integrals

```{code-cell} ipython3
from sympy import limit, sin, diff

limit(1 / x, x, 0)
```

```{code-cell} ipython3
limit(sin(x) / x, x, 0)
```

```{code-cell} ipython3
diff(sin(x), x)
```

The beauty of importing this functionality into Python is that we are
working within a fully fledged programming language.

We can easily create tables of derivatives, generate LaTeX output, add
that output to figures and so on.

## Pandas

One of the most popular libraries for working with data is
[pandas](http://pandas.pydata.org/).

Pandas is fast, efficient, flexible and well designed.

Here\'s a simple example, using some dummy data generated with Numpy\'s
excellent `random` functionality.

```{code-cell} ipython3
import pandas as pd
np.random.seed(1234)

data = np.random.randn(5, 2)  # 5x2 matrix of N(0, 1) random draws
dates = pd.date_range('28/12/2010', periods=5)

df = pd.DataFrame(data, columns=('price', 'weight'), index=dates)
print(df)
```

```{code-cell} ipython3
df.mean()
```

## Further Reading


These lectures were originally taken from a longer and more complete lecture
series on Python programming hosted by [QuantEcon](https://quantecon.org).

The [full set of lectures](https://python-programming.quantecon.org/) might be
useful as the next step of your study.

## Attribution 
The above lesson was pulled directly from work by [Thomas J. Sargent & John Stachurski](https://python-programming.quantecon.org/about_py.html)